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This publication is perhaps the first one to document the impact of density regulation (a class of development regulations) on urban land and housing markets. It provides insights of land use regulation impacts in general and development density regulation impacts in particular. It is useful to policy makers, planners, academicians and professionals concerned with urban policy and planning. It will be a more valuable reading material to those concerned with cities, land use planning and land markets in developing countries.
The economic justification for regulation of land markets through land use controls and other policy instruments is a well studied subject in developed countries. However, in the recent years, there has been an increasing realisation that the regulation of urban land use and its development has been resulting in some undesirable impacts, in particularly, on the operation of land or property markets, which result in increases in land prices and a reduction in the welfare of people. This paper presents an empirical evaluation of the density regulation impact on land prices in Mumbai city. The study finds that the impact of density regulation is highest on the already highly demanded space in the CBD; also, the impact is significant in the suburbs. The study results, however, need to be interpreted more carefully in the light of other land use and housing regulations already in operation.
Though local land regulations have been studied extensively, few papers have studies how these regulations affect metropolitan markets, and of these, very few have been able to identify specific policies that drive the results. Instead scholars have relied on composite indexes, which are empirically noisy and generally taken as exogenous. The primary contribution of this paper is to use uniquely comprehensive survey data and multiple sources of information to clarify which regulations are the most important. Furthermore, a theoretical model of zoning is sketched, modeling it as a function of historic rural settlement patterns in order to limit taxation. Empirical evidence supports the theory on zoning's origins and allows zoning to endogenously affect housing markets. The results of both this technique and simple OLS regressions suggest that roughly 20% of the variation in metropolitan housing growth can be explained through density regulations, and this result is remarkably robust to an alternative measurements and assumptions about other land regulations. The results further show that anti-density regulation inflates prices in the face of demand shocks.
As urbanization progresses at a remarkable pace, policy makers and analysts come to understand and agree on key features that will make this process more efficient and inclusive, leading to gains in the welfare of citizens. Drawing on insights from economic geography and two centuries of experience in developed countries, the World Bank’s World Development Report 2009: Reshaping Economic Geography emphasizes key aspects that are fundamental to ensuring an efficient rural-urban transformation. Critical among these are land, as the most important resource, and well-functioning land markets. Regardless of the stage of urbanization, flexible and forward-looking institu- ons that help the efficient functioning of land markets are the bedrock of succe- ful urbanization strategies. In particular, institutional arrangements for allocating land rights and for managing and regulating land use have significant implica- ons for how cities deliver agglomeration economies and improve the welfare of their residents. Property rights, well-functioning land markets, and the management and servicing of land required to accommodate urban expansion and provide trunk infrastructure are all topics that arise as regions progress from incipient urbani- tion to medium and high density.
Land use regulation exists in various countries in various forms, primarily serving as an instrument for controlling the allocation of land and its development. The economic justification for the regulation of land markets through land use planning and other instruments has been well studied and is a well developed subject. However, in the recent past, there has been an increasing realisation that the regulation of urban land has been resulting in some undesirable impacts, particularly on the operation of markets, which has been resulting in an increase in land prices and a reduction in the welfare of people. In a burgeoning metropolis like Mumbai, where the land and housing needs are very high, regulations like these constrain the supply of housing through a reduction in available built space. Land use planning and regulation influence the outcome of land available for housing in Mumbai. The cumulative effect of the regulation is difficult to estimate, but nevertheless important to have resulted in the current state of markets. The operation of land use planning system, in particular density controls, tend to amplify the impacts, which forms the subject of the study. However, in the light of various policies already impacting the markets, the study results have to be carefully interpreted. This paper presents an attempt made to assess the impacts of such regulations, while focusing on the influence of density regulation on land prices through a referral study of Mumbai.
Almost everywhere in the world housing policies play an important role in government programs. Especially in the industrialized Western economies housing policy issues are triggered mainly by two developments: growing population density and increasing environmental pollution enforce a systematic planning of regional and urban development; all social groups want to participate in the increasing welfare of the domestic economies; until today housing policy is considered an appropriate tool for redistribution and social policy. Taxation serves as an important instrument for the realization of the political objectives mentioned above. Surprisingly, there exists wide-spread consent (even on the academic side) on the effectivity of this instrument. However, strictly speaking this consent concerns only the short run. Long-term effects are usually ignored. Therefore, there is always the inherent risk in these policies that (supposed) market inefficiencies will not be cured, but merely carried forward, and possibly amplified. Moreover, it is characteristic for the political discussion that there is no consistent notion of what efficient housing and land markets ought to look like. Generally accepted for example, is the position that land speculation should be fought whereever possible. Hardly anyone asks the question whether the holding of building land will be beneficial to the economy as a whole, and not only to the speculant.
Land use controls can affect the quality of the environment, the provision of public services, the distribution of income and wealth, the development of natural resources, and the growth of the national economy. The Economics of Zoning Laws is the first book to apply the modern economic theory of property rights to all major aspects of zoning. Zoning laws are neither irrational constrints on otherwise efficient markets nor disinterested attempts to correct market failure. Rather, zoning must be viewed as a collective property right, vested in local governments and administered by politicians who rationally repsond to their constituents and to developers as markets for development rights arise. The Economics of Zoning Laws develops the economic theories of property rights and public choice and applies them to three zoning controversies: the siting of a large industrial plant, the exclusionary zoning of the suburbs, and the constitutional protection of propery owners from excessive regulation. Economic and legal theory, William Fischel contends, suggest that payment of damages under the taking clause of the Constitution may provide the most effective remedy for excessive zoning regulations.
Researchers have responded to urban sprawl, congestion, and pollution by assessing alternatives such as smart growth, new urbanism, and transit-oriented development. Underlying this has been the presumption that, for these options to be given serious consideration as part of policy reform, science has to prove that they will reduce auto use and increase transit, walking, and other physical activity. Zoned Out forcefully argues that the debate about transportation and land-use planning in the United States has been distorted by a myth?the myth that urban sprawl is the result of a free market. According to this myth, low-density, auto-dependent development dominates U.S. metropolitan areas because that is what Americans prefer. Jonathan Levine confronts the free market myth by pointing out that land development is already one of the most regulated sectors of the U.S. economy. Noting that local governments use their regulatory powers to lower densities, segregate different types of land uses, and mandate large roadways and parking lots, he argues that the design template for urban sprawl is written into the land-use regulations of thousands of municipalities nationwide. These regulations and the skewed thinking that underlies current debate mean that policy innovation, market forces, and the compact-development alternatives they might produce are often 'zoned out' of metropolitan areas. In debunking the market myth, Levine articulates an important paradigm shift. Where people believe that current land-use development is governed by a free-market, any proposal for policy reform is seen as a market intervention and a limitation on consumer choice, and any proposal carries a high burden of scientific proof that it will be effective. By reorienting the debate, Levine shows that the burden of scientific proof that was the lynchpin of transportation and land-use debates has been misassigned, and that, far from impeding market forces or limiting consumer choice, policy reform that removes regulatory obstacles would enhance both. A groundbreaking work in urban planning, transportation and land-use policy, Zoned Out challenges a policy environment in which scientific uncertainty is used to reinforce the status quo of sprawl and its negative consequences for people and their communities.
This four-part report is the first in a series of studies that address Twin Cities regional dynamics, using an integrated mix of statistical and cartographic analyses. The report examines the land use/transportation dynamic and its influence on metropolitan development in postwar U.S.; changes in housing supply, housing demand, and residential price movements between 1970 and 1990 in minor civil divisions (MCDs) within the seven-county metropolitan area and adjacent counties; a classification of state and local regulations that promote low-density development on the built-up metropolitan edge and beyond and that raise obstacles to cost-effective redevelopment in older settled areas near the cores of Minnesota's major urban centers; the changing profiles of taxation, intergovernmental revenue transfers, and expenditures by function for counties and MCDs within the Twin Cities region. Findings include the following: During the post-World War II era, the growth in vehicle miles traveled on the Twin Cities metropolitan highway system has significantly out paced growth in population; As income relocates outward from the metropolitan core, the demand for transportation increases on the edges; Sectoral housing market dynamics have contributed to outward expansion at lower densities; Low-density development often occurs because zoning regulations encourage or actively promote it; The regulatory framework that encourages low-density development and contributes to urban sprawl on the metropolitan edge also inhibits the development of affordable housing.