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Highly illustrated, this title in the Alpha Holy Cities series offers clear and simple information on the important religious city of Makkah. Including a brief history of the city, its social, economic and cultural development and the role of its spiritual leaders, this book looks at Makkah's development as the most holy city for the world's community of Muslims, explaining why it is the duty of all Muslims to try at least once in their lives to make a pilgrimmage to Makkah. This book is suitable for a wide range of reading abilities, with key words highlighted, and think back questions that ask the reader what they have learnt so far.
This book provides comprehensive, state-of-the art coverage of photorefractive organic compounds, a class of material with the ability to change their index of refraction upon illumination. The change is both dynamic and reversible. Dynamic because no external processing is required for the index modulation to be revealed, and reversible because the index change can be modified or suppressed by altering the illumination pattern. These properties make photorefractive materials very attractive candidates for many applications such as image restoration, correlation, beam conjugation, non-destructive testing, data storage, imaging through scattering media, holographic imaging and display. The field of photorefractive organic material is also closely related to organic photovoltaic and light emitting diode (OLED), which makes new discoveries in one field applicable to others.
Holographic Materials and Optical Systems covers recent research achievements in the areas of volume holographic optical elements and systems, development of functionalized holographic recording materials, and applications in holographic imaging and metrology. Designs of single and multiplexed volume holographic optical elements for laser beam shaping, combining, and redirection are covered, and their properties are studied theoretically and experimentally. The high impact of holography in imaging and metrology is demonstrated by applications spreading from thickness and surface measurements, through antenna metrology and analyzing high-density gradients in fluid mechanics to characterization of live objects in clinical diagnostics. Novel functionalized materials used in dynamic or permanent holographic recording cover photopolymers, photochromics, photo-thermo-refractive glasses, and hybrid organic-inorganic media.
Photorefractive Materials presents an overview of the basic features and properties of photorefractive materials, covering a wide array of related topics. It provides a coherent approach suitable for introductory and advanced students seeking to learn or review the fundamentals, as well as senior researchers who need a reference while investigating more specialized areas.
This work presents recent progress in the area of organic photorefractive polymer composites. These materials have been previously shown to be a suitable medium for dynamic holographic displays, with multiple colors and single frame writing times on the order of seconds. However, these materials still require large electric fields and high intensity lasers to function effectively. Recent advancements in improving these areas are discussed, including a review of the history and state-of-the-art in photorefractive polymer composites. The addition of electron traps via low loading of the electron-transporting molecule Alq3 is shown to dramatically improve the diffraction efficiency and reduce the required field. The grating formation also proceeds faster by more than one order of magnitude, leading to an increase in sensitivity by a factor of 3. The dynamics of these materials also show evidence of competing gratings indicative of bipolar charge transport and trapping. The addition of an amorphous polycarbonate (APC) buffer layer is reported to have a similar effect on the steady-state diffraction efficiency, and the further doping with a fullerene derivative (PCBM) allows a 3x increase in the efficiency in the reflection geometry, which is normally poor due to the small grating spacing. These composites reveal the fundamental limits of the reflection geometry, based on the physics of high frequency gratings. A reversal in the direction and increase in the magnitude of the two-beam coupling energy transfer is also observed. The use of interdigitated coplanar electrodes, instead of the standard uniform electrodes in a parallel-plate geometry, is shown to result in large diffraction efficiency with symmetric writing beams due to the increased projection field. The efficiency is similar to that achieved in the standard samples with large slant angles and much better than those geometries typically used in applications, with the benefit that the writing beams do not have to be slanted with respect to the sample normal. Different electrode widths are examined and the trade-offs discussed. This device makes beam injection simpler and allows one to bring the benefits of highly slanted geometries, common to small area setups, to the large-area applications.
Optical Holography: Materials, Theory and Applications provides researchers the fundamentals of holography through diffraction optics and an overview of the most relevant materials and applications, ranging from computer holograms to holographic data storage. Dr. Pierre Blanche leads a team of thought leaders in academia and industry in this practical reference for researchers and engineers in the field of holography. This book presents all the information readers need in order to understand how holographic techniques can be applied to a variety of applications, the benefits of those techniques, and the materials that enable these technologies. Researchers and engineers will gain comprehensive knowledge on how to select the best holographic techniques for their needs. Covers current applications of holographic techniques in areas such as 3D television, solar concentration, non-destructive testing and data storage Describes holographic recording materials and their most relevant applications Provides the fundamentals of holography and diffraction optics
This work presents recent advances in photorefractive polymer composites towards improved efficiency, speed, persistence of holograms and sensitivity at both visible and near infrared wavelengths. Besides the pure performance characteristics, a thin-device approach is presented to reduce operating voltage of these devices to practical levels and these materials are analyzed in both reflection and transmission geometries. The thin device operating at 1.3kV holds erasable, Bragg holograms with 80% efficiency in addition to its video-rate response time. The transition of hologram state from 'thick' to 'thin' is analyzed in detail. On the near IR portion of spectrum, new photorefractive polymer composites have been developed that enable high performance operation at 845nm and 975nm. Utilizing our novel photorefractive materials we demonstrate large diffraction efficiency in four-wave mixing experiments and video-rate response times. A major step towards achieving submillisecond response times is obtained through recording photorefractive gratings with individual nanosecond pulses at 532nm. At 4 mJ/cm2 illumination, a maximum diffraction efficiency of 56% has been obtained with a build-up time of only 300 microseconds (t1). This fast response enables applications in optical processing requiring frame rates of 100Hz or more. Due to the short duration of the writing pulses, the recording is insensitive to vibrations. Combining molecules that have different frontier orbital energies in a copolymer system and utilizing thermal fixing approach has led to long grating lifetimes of more than several hours. Later, in this dissertation, two low-glass-transition photorefractive polymer composites are investigated in reflection geometry. 60% is diffraction efficiency is observed in 105 micron thick devices of a PVK based composite. The reflection holograms are more sensitive to reading angle and slight birefringence due to the poling of chromophores has proven to cause a Bragg mismatch.
This is the final volume of a series devoted to photorefractive effects, photorefractive materials and their applications. Since publication of the first two volumes almost 20 years ago, new and often unexpected effects have been discovered. Theoretical models have been developed, known effects can be finally explained and novel applications have been proposed. For this volume, the editors have invited top experts to reflect on the maturity of the field, assessing progress so far, and predicting avenues of future development. In addition, a series of applications of photorefractive nonlinear optics and of optical data storage are presented in several chapters.